Vietnam Strategic Calculus for the South China Sea

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A Brief

Vietnam’s strategic outlook in the South China Sea is deeply rooted in both historical and contemporary considerations. This key region, nestled in the Pacific Ocean, is bordered by several neighboring nations, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, China, and Taiwan. Notably, it serves as a crucial conduit for global trade, with approximately one-third of the world’s trade transiting through its vital sea lanes. Adding to its significance, the presence of the U.S. Seventh Fleet, the largest U.S. fleet forward-deployed in the area, reinforces the strategic importance of Vietnam in this region.

A historical Perspective

Following the Vietnam War and the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1975, the nation confronted various challenges, including its involvement in a conflict in Cambodia and a prolonged border dispute with China from 1979 to 1989. These complex issues, coupled with the lasting impacts of the war, resulted in Vietnam’s economy falling behind its Southeast Asian counterparts. Despite the cessation of conventional conflicts, Vietnam grappled with economic stagnation. However, the turning point came in December 1986, during the Sixth National Party Congress, when the Doi Moi policy was introduced. This comprehensive program of economic and political reforms aimed to transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one.

The resolution passed during the Sixth National Party Congress underscored the significance of peace for economic development and emphasized the establishment of peaceful relationships with all states, regardless of their socio-political systems. Vietnam significantly downsized its standing defense force, introducing the concepts of “people’s war” and “all-people’s national defense,” which highlighted the involvement of the entire population in the nation’s protection. In the years that followed, Vietnam normalized its relations with China in 1991, became a member of ASEAN in 1995, and joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 1998.

In 1998, Vietnam unveiled its first Defense White Paper (DWP), which identified major threats, including economic decline, political and security challenges, territorial disputes in the South China Sea, and non-traditional security issues like smuggling and illegal fishing within its waters.

In 2004, Vietnam published its second DWP, reaffirming its dedication to peace and self-defense and expressing its opposition to military alliances and foreign military bases on its territory. The DWP 2004 also recognized the significance of addressing unresolved disputes concerning sovereignty claims in the South China Sea and non-traditional security concerns.

By 2007, Vietnam had introduced its first comprehensive maritime strategy, titled “Vietnam’s Maritime Strategy towards the Year 2020,” with the aim of developing a robust maritime and coastal economy. This strategy gave priority to bolstering the country’s armed forces, particularly focusing on the Navy, Air Force, marine police, border protection force, maritime militia, and self-defense force. These forces were tasked with protecting fishermen and supporting activities related to the exploration of maritime resources within Vietnam’s maritime zones.

The escalating tensions in the South China Sea brought forth challenges from China, including warnings to foreign oil and gas companies engaged in joint exploration efforts with Vietnam. In response to these challenges, Vietnam needed to enhance its defense diplomacy, seek international support, and invest in maritime forces capable of upholding national sovereignty. The DWP 2009 reiterated Vietnam’s commitment to resolving disputes through peaceful means in accordance with international laws.

Geography at play

Vietnam’s extensive 3,260-kilometer coastline along the western South China Sea is rich in fisheries and vast hydrocarbon reserves. While estimates of these resources may vary, it is evident that a significant portion lies within the Exclusive Economic Zones claimed by China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines. These overlapping claims have given rise to jurisdictional disputes, particularly due to China’s expansive ‘new ten dash line’ claims.

In this geopolitical landscape, Vietnam’s strategic significance becomes pronounced. Positioned as a substantial obstacle to China’s southward maritime expansion, Vietnam is marked by unresolved territorial and maritime disputes with China. Recognized as a key player in the regional dynamics of this vital waterbody, Vietnam’s role is acknowledged by major maritime powers, including the United States, China, Japan, India, Russia, and Australia.

Security and Maritime Challenges to Vietnam

Vietnam confronts a substantial maritime security challenges, primarily focused on safeguarding its territorial claims, sovereignty, and national interests in a region rife with disputes. These disputes extend to claims on the Paracel and Spratly Islands and the assertion of jurisdiction over an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and continental shelf as defined by UNCLOS baselines. Of particular concern is China’s assertive actions in the region, including the takeover of the Paracel Islands and extensive construction efforts in the Spratly Islands. Vietnam is unwavering in its commitment to defending these claims, which have become a paramount security concern as China’s influence in the South China Sea grows. Moreover, Vietnam grapples with non-traditional security challenges, such as transnational crime, Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated fishing, cyber threats, environmental degradation, climate change, terrorism, illegal immigration, and pandemics, with piracy, smuggling, and climate change emerging as the most significant non-traditional maritime security issues for the nation.

China’s assertive stance in Territories Surrounding the South China Sea

Disputes over sovereignty in the South China Sea involve multiple nations, including China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Taiwan, and these disputes revolve around claims to islands and maritime rights. China’s sovereignty claims in the area are rooted in historical connections dating back to various Chinese dynasties, ancient maps, and actions during the Opium Wars and the 20th-century occupation of key islands, which China cites to bolster its territorial claims. China’s use of the “dash-line” doctrine, introduced in 1947, and it’s more assertive stance subsequently, including activities like imposing fishing bans and conducting military exercises, have contributed to heightened tensions, particularly with Vietnam. As China’s economic and military power has grown, it has become increasingly assertive in safeguarding its interests through various means as a great power in the region. The evolving power balance, coupled with Sino-U.S. strategic rivalry and China’s need to secure economic and energy resource security, has played a pivotal role in flaring tensions in the South China Sea. China’s growing concerns in the region are centered on “Malacca dilemma”, the Sino-Japanese strategic rivalry, heightened Sino-Philippine tensions, along with the presence of the United States in this geo political spectrum.

Simmering Tensions and Territorial Disputes

China Vs. Taiwan

First, let us get a glimpse of Taiwan in the region with which Beijing’s relations are flaring. Despite governing itself independently since 1949, officially as the Republic of China (ROC), Taiwan finds itself in a precarious situation. China, officially the People’s Republic of China (PRC), deems Taiwan a rebellious province and aspires to achieve “unification” with the mainland, even if coercive measures are necessary. The tension has intensified notably since the election of Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen in 2016. President Tsai, at the helm of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and advocating for a nuanced approach to Taiwan’s status, endeavors to maintain a peaceful yet distinctive relationship with China. However, China’s response has been marked by assertive actions, including military provocations in close proximity to Taiwan, heightening concerns that a conflict over Taiwan might entangle the United States in a war with China. The United States has adopted a One-China policy and does not formally recognize Taiwan, maintaining a complex unofficial relationship while continuing to sell arms to Taiwan’s military. Recent administrations have increased engagement with Taiwan, including arms sales, official visits, and greater diplomatic contact, which has elicited strong responses from China. The risk of a potential conflict over Taiwan remains a significant concern, as China’s military capabilities grow, and the political situation continues to evolve. The possibility of war over Taiwan is not ruled out, with differing opinions among experts regarding the likelihood and timing of a Chinese invasion. The United States’ policy of strategic ambiguity has aimed to strike a delicate balance between supporting Taiwan and preventing a war with China, but President Joe Biden’s statements indicating U.S. defense of Taiwan have added uncertainty to the situation. Despite the economic and diplomatic challenges posed by China’s pressure, Taiwan’s democracy has remained resilient and vibrant, with most people on the island supporting the status quo while seeking closer ties with countries that respect its sovereignty and democratic values.

Philippines Vs. China

In the South of Taiwan lies the Philippines, whose President Ferdinand Marcos Jr.’s visited China in January 2023, where he established a hotline for direct communication between the Philippines and China’s foreign affairs ministries, aimed to prevent the escalation of tensions in the West Philippine Sea. However, when a crisis occurred in August, with the Chinese Coast Guard firing water cannons at Philippine boats in their exclusive economic zone, the hotline remained unanswered. China’s actions, such as the publication of a new map with ten-dash lines that violate international law and the 2016 arbitral decision, have raised concerns and led to diplomatic protests. While the Philippines and like-minded nations have stood up to China’s assertiveness, the challenges persist. The current administration, under Marcos Jr., has departed from the previous pro-China policy, emphasizing a foreign policy aligned with national interests and strengthening alliances with countries sharing similar values. Public opinion supports such measures to address West Philippine Sea issues, emphasizing military strengthening, joint maritime patrols, and a focus on defense capabilities.

The Role of the United States

President Joe Biden’s most recent visit to Hanoi marks a significant milestone in the growing relationship between the United States and Vietnam, as they upgraded their ties to a comprehensive strategic partnership. This new level of diplomatic engagement, Vietnam’s highest, is expected to lead to increased military cooperation and closer collaboration on issues like climate change. During his visit, Biden encouraged U.S. technology and aviation companies to expand their partnerships with Vietnamese counterparts. However, the Biden administration has faced criticism from human rights groups and some members of Congress for engaging more closely with Vietnam at a time when the country’s human rights record has deteriorated. Despite these concerns, the strategic importance of Vietnam in the region has led the White House to prioritize the relationship, in contrast to the 1990s and 2000s when human rights issues hindered U.S.-Vietnam ties.

While most of Vietnam’s ASEAN neighbors have leaned closer to China, Hanoi’s concerns about Chinese aggression and actions in the South China Sea have driven its decision to strengthen ties with the United States. However, Vietnam is unlikely to completely pivot away from its multidirectional foreign policy. The country remains economically dependent on China, making it challenging to decouple their economies. Additionally, Vietnam maintains historical ties with Russia, which has been a key arms supplier and supporter during the Vietnam War. Therefore, Vietnam’s comprehensive strategic partnership with the United States signifies a deepening alignment of interests but does not imply a complete departure from its existing international relationships, as it continues to balance its strategic engagements.

A Calculus of Vietnam’s Deterrence amid Tensions in the South China Sea

Vietnam’s strategic approach centers on safeguarding its regime’s survival, countering China’s influence, and avoiding regional conflicts, with a primary focus on protecting sovereignty and enforcing maritime claims in the South China Sea. The Vietnamese Communist Party (CPV) is aiming to secure its power by driving economic growth. Vietnam actively cultivates relationships with key players like the United States, Japan, India, Australia, and fellow Southeast Asian nations. Vietnam adheres to a defense policy guided by the “three No’s,” which means no alliances, no foreign military bases on its soil, and no reliance on other nations during conflicts. While Vietnam desires strong defense cooperation with the United States, its proximity to China necessitates a careful balancing act. Vietnam’s approach opposes the use of force, seeks to deter China, and is open to participating in security and defense mechanisms in the Indo-Pacific region, including potential engagement with the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) and greater involvement in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) security initiatives.

Asia

How Benito Ebuen Air Base in Cebu provides strategic depth to the Philippines?

From the Soviet Union’s vast geography repelling German forces during World War II to Israel’s control of the Golan Heights providing a defensive advantage, nations have relied on strategic depth to protect their territories throughout history. In the Philippines, Benito Ebuen Air Base on Mactan Island serves a similar purpose, offering the nation a crucial military hub at the heart of the Visayas region. Positioned centrally, this base is more than just a runway; it plays a vital role in the rapid deployment of air assets, enabling the country to respond swiftly to threats and emergencies. As regional challenges evolve, the strategic significance of Benito Ebuen Air Base becomes increasingly apparent, highlighting its essential role in national defense and regional stability. What makes Benito Ebuen Air Base so essential, and how does its location help keep the country safe? Let us explore this vital base and find out.

Table of Contents

Overview of Benito Ebuen Air Base

Benito Ebuen Air Base is a pivotal military facility located on Mactan Island in Cebu, established in 1958. It is named in honor of General Benito Ebuen, a distinguished figure in the Philippine Air Force. Over the decades, the base has grown into a key component of the Philippine Air Force’s operations, playing a vital role in air defense and operational readiness. Its evolution reflects the Philippines’ commitment to a modern and capable air force.

The strategic significance of Benito Ebuen Air Base is amplified by its central location in the Visayas region. Situated on Mactan Island, the base is ideally positioned to provide comprehensive coverage and support throughout the central Philippines. This central placement allows for efficient coordination and rapid deployment of air assets across the archipelago. Its location facilitates quicker response times to both regional and national emergencies, enhancing overall defense and operational flexibility.

Historical Background

With its beginnings during the American rule of the Philippines, Benito Ebuen Air Base has a rich past. Founded on Mactan Island, it served as a key location for regional military operations. The base supplied vital air support and logistical support in the defense of the area against Japanese forces during World War II.

A new era began when the base was turned up to Philippines authority after the war. The base has undergone significant renovation and modifications over this time, making it an essential part of the Philippine Air Force. Thanks to these improvements, Benito Ebuen Air Base will continue to be a vital resource for the nation’s operational and air defense requirements.

Strategic Importance

Because it is home to important Philippine Air Force units like the 220th Airlift Wing and the 205th Tactical Operations Wing, Benito Ebuen Air Base is very valuable militarily. The base’s involvement in regional security and defense is strengthened by these units, which are essential for carrying out a variety of tasks, from tactical missions to strategic airlift.
The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) between the United States and the Philippines significantly increases the base’s strategic significance. The objective of the April 28, 2014, agreement, which was signed by President Benigno Aquino III, is to enhance security cooperation between the United States and the Philippines by increasing the rotational deployment of US soldiers at specific sites, such as Benito Ebuen Air Base.

Recent events have highlighted how crucial this agreement is. The EDCA’s implementation has accelerated despite early setbacks and difficulties, such as opposition and judicial review, particularly in reaction to China’s forceful moves in the South China Sea. The US and the Philippines expedited their plans in February 2023 to fully implement EDCA, adding four new facilities to the list of places already in place. In addition, the agreement has resulted in the approval of other new projects and increased funding.

Significant turning points in US-Philippine security relations occurred in April 2024. In order to support freedom of navigation, a maritime cooperative activity including the US, Australia, Japan, the Philippines, and the Philippines was carried out in the South China Sea on April 7. The first trilateral summit between the US, Japan, and the Philippines was held on April 11 with the goal of advancing an open and free Indo-Pacific. In addition, the two countries’ continued strategic cooperation in the face of escalating regional tensions served as a highlight of the EDCA’s tenth anniversary.

In essence, the strategic significance of Benito Ebuen Air Base is enhanced by the continuous EDCA relationship, making it not only an essential operational hub but also a crucial component of the larger framework of US-Philippine defense cooperation.

Strategic Depth and Regional Stability

The Philippines benefits greatly from Benito Ebuen Air Base’s strategic position on Mactan Island in Cebu. Its central location within the Visayas allows it to respond quickly to different parts of the archipelago. During emergencies, this centrality is essential because it enables the effective deployment of manpower and resources to impacted areas. Beyond military, the base plays a crucial role in aiding humanitarian and disaster relief efforts. For example, its close proximity makes it easier to mobilize quickly in the event of a disaster, as demonstrated by the recent typhoon emergencies in the area.

The base’s continued expansion and enhancement of its infrastructure serves to emphasize its strategic relevance even more. Under the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA), the Philippine government and the US government will continue to improve the base’s amenities in 2024. To handle additional aircraft and equipment, these modifications include enlarging runway capabilities and enhancing logistical support systems. The goal is to guarantee that the facility can efficiently support tasks pertaining to both international cooperation and national defense.

Future plans include for a possible augmentation of the military’s presence at Benito Ebuen Air Base. The infrastructure improvements and strategic adjustments are intended to support a wider variety of military actions. This growth is in line with the Philippines’ overarching plan to improve its defense capabilities and better address threats to regional security.

Current Operations and Facilities

The runways that Benito Ebuen Air Base shares with Mactan-Cebu International Airport (MCIA) are vital to the aviation industry in the area. MCIA managed about 17,000 international aircraft movements in 2023, highlighting the agency’s significance for both military and commercial aviation. The base’s operating flexibility and efficiency are improved by this integration.
The facilities on the site are capable of supporting various military activities. Its infrastructure has been updated recently to support combined missions and modern aircraft. For instance, U.S. Air Force F-22 Raptors performed operations at Benito Ebuen on August 8, 2024, showcasing the base’s capacity to handle high-performance aircraft.

Major enhancements are in progress under the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA). Expanding and updating facilities to accommodate bigger and more varied aircraft is the main emphasis of recent improvements, which are in line with strategic objectives to improve operational preparedness and regional security.

In order to guarantee that Benito Ebuen Air Base continues to be a vital asset for the Philippine Air Force and allied operations, future plans call for ongoing upgrading initiatives. The base’s strategic significance in the area is bolstered by its developing infrastructure, which supports its participation in joint exercises and tactical actions.

Geopolitical Context

In order to address security concerns in the Visayas region, Benito Ebuen Air Base is essential. Threats from terrorism and insurgency have been present in the region, and local military units are actively involved in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency activities. Along with its brigades, the Joint Task Force Spear of the Philippine Army’s 3rd Infantry Division fights armed militants and strengthens territorial security. For the region to remain stable and secure, these initiatives are essential. Additional resources and training possibilities are brought about by cooperation with the United States, especially through the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA).

Recent EDCA-funded U.S. military exercises and upgrades, for example, have strengthened the defense posture in the region by enhancing the capabilities of sites like Benito Ebuen Air Base.
By forming both domestic and international alliances, these cooperative initiatives highlight the significance of Benito Ebuen Air Base in the larger geopolitical context and promote peace and security in the region.

End point

The Benito Ebuen Air Base, established in 1958 on Mactan Island, is a cornerstone of the Philippines’ military strategy due to its strategic location and critical role in national defense. Over the years, it has evolved into a vital air operations hub, key to both regional security and the nation’s quick reaction and humanitarian aid efforts. As the base undergoes upgrades and expands its capabilities, it will play an even greater role in addressing emerging threats and collaborating with international allies. Its central position in the Visayas not only enhances its strategic importance but also reinforces its contribution to regional stability.

Asia

What upgrades does Philippines need in its armed forces?

As the Philippines confronts an increasingly uncertain world, its armed forces are undergoing a transformative overhaul to meet evolving security challenges. With breathtaking landscapes and a rich cultural heritage, the nation is strategically positioned in Southeast Asia, making its military upgrades crucial. Significant modernization and training efforts are in progress across all branches: the Army is enhancing its equipment and training; the Navy is investing in advanced vessels and maritime capabilities; the Air Force is modernizing aircraft and readiness; the Marine Corps is acquiring amphibious assault vehicles and improving inter-branch coordination; Special Operations Forces are upgrading equipment and reconnaissance; Cyber Defense is strengthening infrastructure and expertise; and the Coast Guard is expanding its law enforcement and patrol capabilities. As the Philippines strengthens its defense and operational capacities, it is poised to better navigate complex security dynamics, securing a resilient and strategically aligned future. Let us get into the detail of it.

Table of Contents

Background of the Philippines’ armed forces

The formation of the Philippine Armed Forces as a militia to oppose foreign control during the Spanish colonial era is the beginning of the force’s long history. The Philippines’ military underwent substantial change following its independence in 1946. The military forces have encountered several difficulties over the years, including as regional conflicts and domestic insurgencies. The Philippines is currently dealing with fresh geopolitical dangers, chief among them being China’s persistent territorial conflicts in the South China Sea. Tensions have increased as a result of these disputes, therefore strengthening the nation’s defenses is imperative.

Importance of Modernization

Modernizing the military is crucial for several reasons. The Philippines faces significant external threats, particularly from China’s expansive claims in the South China Sea. To effectively safeguard its sovereignty and territorial integrity, the country needs advanced and up-to-date defense systems.

As of 2024, the Philippines rank 23rd globally and 14th regionally in military strength. This ranking highlights the nation’s strategic importance in Southeast Asia but also points to a pressing need for modernization. Currently, 75% of the military’s equipment dates back to the Cold War era, with only 25% being modern. This outdated equipment highlight the urgency for an upgraded defense system to address evolving security challenges.

Responding to this, the Philippines intend to increase its defense budget by 6.4% to 256.1 billion pesos (about $4.38 billion) in 2025. The objective of this budget is to augment the military’s capacity to safeguard maritime concerns and facilitate the advancement of land, air, and sea forces.

Military Service Branches

The Armed Forces of the Philippines, which include the three main branches of the military—the Philippine Air Force (PAF), Philippine Army (PA), and Philippine Navy (PN)—are responsible for overseeing all of the country’s fighting forces. The Philippine Marine Corps (PMC) is supported by the Navy as well.

Air Force

Current State

The force currently counts 173 total units in its active aircraft inventory. The Philippine Air Force (PAF) uses both modern and vintage aircraft. EMBRAER A-29 attack aircraft are utilised in conjunction with South Korean FA-50s as a light strike platform within the fleet. Modified Cessna 208 and ATR 72 aircraft are used by the PAF for maritime patrol and reconnaissance. American-made equipment makes up the majority of the transport and helicopter forces.

The PAF has been concentrating on updating its capabilities lately. One prominent example is the newly renovated Basa Air Base, which is now undergoing major upgrades and is home to the PAF’s FA-50PH combat aircraft. This base will receive a 625,000-square-foot parking apron, funded by a $32 million Pentagon contract, as part of the Pacific Deterrence Initiative. This upgrade will help the base accommodate up to 20 aircrafts to enhance its operational capacity.

Required Upgrades

To address current and future threats more effectively, the Philippine Air Force (PAF) requires several key upgrades. One of the most critical areas is the acquisition of new multi-role fighter jets. The PAF is currently evaluating the Saab Gripen E and the F-16 Viper as potential options. The Gripen E stands out for its advanced radar systems and lower maintenance costs, while the F-16 Viper is known for its proven reliability and extensive global support network. Both aircraft offer significant improvements over the existing fleet and would greatly enhance the PAF’s operational capabilities.

In addition to upgrading its fighter jets, the PAF also needs to enhance its airlift capabilities. New transport aircraft are crucial for enabling the rapid deployment of personnel and equipment, ensuring that the Air Force can respond swiftly and effectively to various situations. Modernizing air defense systems is another priority. Upgrades in this area are essential to protect the nation’s airspace from evolving threats and to strengthen overall military readiness.

Furthermore, investing in advanced surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities is vital for maintaining the security of the Philippines’ airspace. This is particularly important given the rising tensions in the South China Sea, where China’s assertive actions pose ongoing challenges. By implementing these upgrades, the PAF will be better equipped to safeguard Philippine airspace.

Army

Current State

With a wide range of equipment, the Philippine Army deploys a range of tracked and wheeled vehicles for use in fire support, reconnaissance, and troop transport, among other combat tasks. These cars are from Brazil, Turkey, and the United States, demonstrating a wide-ranging global collaboration.

The artillery of the Army consists of thousands of mortars and a combination of Israeli and American towed systems in 105mm and 155mm calibers. Multiple-launch rocket systems (MLRS) utilize the K136 rocket from South Korea. The Army is in possession of 567 armored fighting vehicles (AFVs), which include mine-resistant ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles, infantry combat vehicles, and tank destroyers. In addition, it possesses 325 pieces of self-propelled, rocket, and towed artillery in addition to 18 tanks.

Salaknib 2024, one of the most recent joint exercises, demonstrates the Army’s dedication to improving its operational skills by working with US forces.

Required Upgrades

To further its effectiveness, the Philippine Army requires several key upgrades. First and foremost, the modernization of infantry weapons and equipment is crucial. By updating these resources, the Army can significantly improve its combat effectiveness and better adapt to current and future operational demands.

In addition to infantry upgrades, the acquisition of advanced artillery systems is necessary to increase the Army’s firepower and precision. This involves securing new towed, self-propelled, and rocket artillery systems, which will provide the necessary fire support in various combat scenarios.

Improving night-fighting capabilities is another critical area of focus. By enhancing technologies that allow for effective operations during low-light conditions, the Army will increase its operational versatility and maintain a tactical edge in challenging environments.

The Army also needs to improve its mobility with the introduction of new armored vehicles. These vehicles will provide better protection for troops, ensuring more effective deployment and maneuverability on the battlefield.

Likewise, the enhancement of air defense capabilities is also vital. The acquisition of phased-out Japanese air defense missile systems marks a significant step in this direction. These systems are essential for countering aerial threats.

Navy

Current State

There is currently a major modernization initiative underway in the Philippine Navy. Notable developments include Hyundai Heavy Industries’ launch of the BRP Miguel Malvar, a guided missile corvette, which is scheduled for delivery in 2025, and the second corvette, which is scheduled for delivery in 2026. Additionally, the Navy plans to purchase its first submarine, with the French Naval Group’s Scorpène-class submarines being the most likely choice. The acquisition has a budget USD 1.25-1.80 billion and is a component of the Horizon 3 modernization plan (2023-2028). The Mexican Navy and the German Defense Minister’s recent trips, among other international engagements, demonstrate the continuous efforts to improve maritime security and international cooperation.

Required Upgrades

The Philippine Navy requires several key upgrades. One of the primary needs is the acquisition of new frigates and corvettes. Continued procurement of these advanced vessels is vital for strengthening the Navy’s surface combatant capabilities. The addition of the BRP Miguel Malvar and the forthcoming second corvette will significantly enhance the fleet’s operational capacity.

Another strategic priority is the development of a submarine fleet. The planned acquisition of Scorpène-class submarines, along with the establishment of domestic manufacturing and training capabilities, is crucial for expanding the Navy’s underwater warfare capabilities.

Enhancing maritime patrol and surveillance capabilities is also essential. The Navy must continue to develop these systems to effectively monitor and secure the vast waters of the South China Sea, where rising tensions require vigilant oversight and response capabilities.

Additionally, the modernization of naval bases and infrastructure is necessary to support both new and existing vessels. Upgrading these facilities will ensure that the Navy can efficiently maintain and operate its assets, thereby maximizing operational readiness.

Marine Corps

Current State

The Philippine Marine Corps (PMC) is strengthening its defenses against challenges to national security from the inside as well as the outside. The establishment of the Maritime Security Battalion on July 1, 2024, to safeguard maritime passages and assist with littoral operations, is one example of recent advances. The Marine Corps’ transition from counterinsurgency to external marine defense, especially in the South China Sea, is reflected in this unit. Furthermore, the Marine Corps has started conducting littoral operations and exercises related to marine domain awareness using small boats and fiberglass-reinforced plastic boats. Retraining units like MBLT-4, MBLT-6, and MBLT-9 is another part of the transformation that aims to improve their amphibious and coastal defense capabilities.

Required Upgrades

To strengthen its capabilities, the Philippine Navy should focus on several key areas. First, the acquisition of new amphibious assault vehicles is essential to bolster littoral and amphibious operations, providing the Navy with greater versatility in various combat and humanitarian missions.

Next, enhancing training programs and conducting more rigorous readiness exercises are vital for improving the Navy’s operational effectiveness.

Lastly, improving integration and coordination with other branches of the Armed Forces is crucial for conducting effective joint operations and maritime defense.

Other Forces

The primary focus of the Philippine Special Operations Command (SOCom) is the modernization of its training and equipment. Modern cooperative drills, particularly with American forces, have emphasized enhancing operational efficacy and marine security. To better address sophisticated threats and carry out specialized missions, SOCom is also advancing its intelligence and reconnaissance capabilities.

As of early 2024, the Philippines experienced approximately 8,800 cyberattacks daily, with government and educational institutions being the primary targets. In response, the government has allocated significant funds in the 2024–2025 budget to strengthen cyber defense. This includes increased funding for the Cybercrime Investigation and Coordination Center (CICC) and the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT). Key initiatives involve expanding the cyber defense infrastructure, enhancing workforce competencies through the Philippine Skills Framework, and improving the nation’s capacity to manage cybercrime incidents.

The Philippine Coast Guard is reinforcing its capabilities by acquiring advanced equipment and additional patrol boats. The aim is to boost operational readiness and enhance maritime law enforcement. Recent trilateral alliances and collaborations have focused on strengthening maritime law enforcement across Southeast Asia, underscoring the Coast Guard’s commitment to safeguarding Philippine maritime interests.

Financial and Logistical Considerations

In January 2024, under the “Re-Horizon 3” proposal, the Philippine military modernization plan allocated up to $35 billion for the next ten years. This plan prioritizes strengthening defense capabilities in response to escalating regional tensions and revises the previous acquisition list to address current challenges more effectively. The budget focuses on bolstering the Army, Navy, Air Force, and specialized units, aiming to enhance the country’s external defense and support comprehensive modernization efforts across all branches.

The Philippines is also intensifying its defense cooperation with international partners. Significant progress has been made in the U.S.-Philippines alliance, with an increased rotational presence, joint exercises, and the negotiation of new agreements, such as the General Security of Military Information Agreement.

By the end of 2024, the Philippines is expected to finalize a defense agreement with Germany, which will bolster Manila’s modernization efforts, improve military training, facilitate the purchase of equipment, and reinforce a rules-based order in the South China Sea. Additionally, the Reciprocal Access Agreement with Japan, signed in early 2024, allows for joint drills and mutual access for defense operations, addressing shared concerns over regional security, particularly in response to China’s activities in the South China Sea. These partnerships and agreements are crucial for enhancing the Philippines’ defense capabilities and integrating the country more closely with global allies amid rising regional tensions.

Inference

The Philippines’ armed forces are undergoing a comprehensive transformation to address evolving security threats. Across all branches, significant modernization and training efforts are underway: the Army is focusing on acquiring modern equipment and enhancing training programs; the Navy is investing in state-of-the-art vessels and boosting maritime capabilities; the Air Force is modernizing its aircraft and improving operational readiness; the Marine Corps is procuring amphibious assault vehicles and refining coordination with other branches; Special Operations Forces are upgrading their equipment and enhancing reconnaissance capabilities; Cyber Defense is building robust infrastructure and training specialists; and the Coast Guard is expanding its law enforcement capabilities and modernizing its patrol vessels. These modernization initiatives are expected to greatly enhance national security, bolstering the Philippines’ ability to protect its interests and contributing to regional stability. As these upgrades strengthen the country’s defense and operational capacities, the Philippines will be better equipped to navigate complex security challenges, ensuring a more secure and strategically aligned future.

Analysis

Where U.S. Bases are located in the Philippines?

“The Philippines and the U.S. have had a strong relationship with each other for a very long time now. We have a shared history. We have shared values, democracy, freedom, and we have been in all the wars together in modern history, the World War, Second World War, Cold War, Vietnam, Korea, now the war on terrorism.”

Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

The United States’ military presence in the Philippines is more than a historical relic; it serves as a strategic pivot in one of the world’s most disputed areas. With a renewed emphasis on combating China’s expanding influence in the South China Sea, the United States has reestablished its presence at several critical bases in the Philippines. These stations, which range from Luzon to Palawan, are essential components of a larger strategy aimed at safeguarding freedom of navigation, strengthening regional security, and maintaining a balance of power in the region. Let’s get into the specifics of where these bases are and why they matter.

Table of Contents

History of US-Philippines military relations

The United States and the Philippines have maintained a strong relationship, often described as a “special relationship,” rooted in the Philippines’ history as an American colony from 1898 to 1946. Diplomatic relations between the two nations were formally established in 1946. This close bond is supported by deep historical and cultural ties, shared democratic values, and a robust security alliance underpinned by the Mutual Defense Treaty of 1951. This treaty remains a cornerstone of the two countries’ defense cooperation.

The US-Philippine Bilateral Strategic Dialogue (BSD) is an annual forum for strategic discussions, covering all facets of the relationship. The people-to-people ties are particularly strong, with over four million Filipino Americans living in the United States and nearly 400,000 Americans residing in the Philippines, including many military veterans. Manila is home to the only Veterans Administration regional office outside the United States and hosts the Manila American Cemetery, the largest American military cemetery outside US borders. In 2023, more than 900,000 Americans visited the Philippines. Various exchange programs further strengthen this bond, including the world’s longest-running Fulbright program, the International Visitor Leadership Program, and the Young Southeast Asia Leaders Initiative. Over 9,000 Filipino alumni of US exchange programs reside in the Philippines, while 1,000 US citizens have participated in exchange programs there.

The importance of partnerships with Pacific treaty allies, particularly the Philippines, was emphasized in the 2022 National Security Strategy. Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin has visited the Philippines multiple times. The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) between the two countries solidifies their military cooperation. Although the Philippine constitution prohibits foreign military bases on its soil, the EDCA allows US forces to be stationed at four new bases on a rotating basis.

“The Philippines is very important – I have many, many friends from the Philippines. They’re great people. The Philippines strategically is very important to us. I think we’ll have a great relationship with the Philippines. I think it’s strategically very important to do so.”

Donald Trump

Locations of US Bases in the Philippines

United States military bases in the Philippines were formed as a result of a treaty made after World War II and the US’s acknowledgment of Philippine independence. The bases established by that treaty were decommissioned in 1991 and 1992, when the Senate of the Philippines narrowly rejected a new treaty that would have allowed some of the bases to remain for another ten years.

Existing Bases

Antonio Bautista Air Base in Palawan

(Strategically located near the South China Sea)

The Antonio Bautista Air Base is critical for monitoring and responding to activity in the South China Sea. Its closeness to disputed waters makes it an important frontline location for surveillance and rapid deployment, thereby enhancing the strategic objectives of the United States and the Philippines in the region.

Basa Air Base, Pampanga

(The primary air force base for joint training exercises)

Basa Air Base, located in Central Luzon, is an important site for joint military exercises between the United States and the Philippines. Its strategic location provides easy access to both the South China Sea and Northern Luzon, improving air defense capabilities.

Fort Magsaysay, Nueva Ecija

(The largest military camp in the Philippines)

Fort Magsaysay, the country’s largest military station, serves as a crucial site for large-scale drills and operations. Its large facilities enable a wide range of military tasks, including infantry training and disaster response, making it a key hub for US-Philippine defense cooperation.

Benito Ebuen Air Base in Cebu

(Centrally located in the Visayas region)

Benito Ebuen Air Base, located in the heart of the Visayas, is perfectly positioned to support operations throughout the central Philippines. Its strategic location enables rapid deployment to various regions of the archipelago, particularly in the event of a regional crisis.

Lumbia Air Base in Cagayan de Oro

(Important for operations in Mindanao)

Lumbia Air Base is an important base for military operations in Mindanao, an area that frequently faces security issues. Its involvement is critical in counterterrorism activities and preserving security in the southern Philippines, demonstrating the strategic depth of the US-Philippines partnership.

New EDCA Sites

The United States and the Philippines have agreed to “rapidly pursue modernization projects” at four key locations: Camilo Osias Naval Base in Cagayan, Camp Melchor Dela Cruz in Isabela, Lal-lo Airport in Cagayan, and Balabac Island in Palawan. Of these, only Balabac Island borders the South China Sea, while the other three sites are situated in the northern Philippines, closer to Taiwan. These northern sites are particularly significant as they enhance the Armed Forces of the Philippines’ (AFP) capability to conduct naval and air operations in the Luzon Strait and Benham Rise. The Luzon Strait, which separates the Philippines from Taiwan, connects the South China Sea to the Philippine Sea, making it strategically important. It serves as a potential passage for Chinese warships into the Western Pacific, posing a threat to Taiwan. Benham Rise, located 155 miles east of Luzon, was recognized as part of the Philippines’ continental shelf in 2012, though China has conducted seabed surveys in the area.

China has strongly opposed the development of the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) sites, arguing that the US military could use them to intervene in a Taiwan Strait crisis or potentially threaten China. However, China’s primary concern is not the specific location of the bases but the deepening security cooperation between the US and the Philippines. While China held significant influence during the Duterte administration, it is now frustrated by the current Philippine government’s less pro-China stance. Chinese Ambassador to the Philippines, Huang Xilian, expressed Beijing’s concerns, stating that “the US intends to take advantage of the new EDCA sites to interfere in the situation across the Taiwan Strait to serve its geopolitical goals, and advance its anti-China agenda at the expense of peace and development of the Philippines and the region at large.”

The US has increased its financial commitment to EDCA infrastructure from $82 million to $100 million to include the new sites. The five existing EDCA sites are Basa Air Base in Pampanga, Fort Magsaysay in Nueva Ecija, Antonio Bautista Air Base in Palawan, Benito Ebuen Air Base in Cebu, and Lumbia Air Base in Cagayan de Oro. These sites involve 15 infrastructure projects, though only five have been completed so far. In Palawan, these include a warehouse for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR), a fuel storage tank, and a Command and Control (C2) fusion center. The rehabilitation of Basa Air Base’s 1.7-mile runway began in March and is expected to be completed by September. Additionally, construction has started on a 1.8-mile runway on Balabac Island, which will also include an HADR warehouse, barracks, and other military facilities.

These projects are designed to enhance the capabilities of both the AFP and the US military, enabling more effective bilateral training, such as the annual Balikatan exercises, and improving resilience for missions like HADR and national defense. Despite China’s objections, the US Department of Defense has affirmed its commitment to working with the Philippines on initiatives that benefit both nations, and the possibility of further EDCA locations being announced in the future remains open. AFP spokesperson Colonel Medel Aguilar stated, “If we’re talking about expanding EDCA, this is doable. We are an archipelagic country, with several islands and a lengthy coastline. If we want to maintain our sovereignty and territorial integrity, including the protection of maritime resources that should be enjoyed by our people, we need 360degree protection capability for the AFP.”

Significance of U.S. Bases in the Philippines

Military and Strategic Importance

The US bases in the Philippines play important role in combating China’s assertive operations in the South China sea. Recent military advancements, such as the expansion of the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) in 2023, have allowed the United States to gain access to new bases in the Philippines, improving its ability to project power and undertake regional surveillance. This presence acts as a disincentive to Chinese militarization of contested territory, protecting freedom of navigation and crucial sea lanes. The integration of US soldiers with the Armed soldiers of the Philippines (AFP) through joint exercises like the annual Balikatan has greatly increased interoperability.

Economic and Social Impact

The presence of US military personnel provides significant economic benefits to local areas. For example, the development and expansion of EDCA facilities has resulted in greater employment and local business growth, particularly in Palawan and Pampanga. The United States has invested millions of dollars here thereby boosting economic activity and raising living conditions of locals. US investments in military infrastructure have resulted in considerable enhancements to local infrastructures such as airports, highways, and communication networks. These advances not only help military operations, but they also assist local communities by improving connectivity and access to key services. The ongoing modifications at locations such as Basa Air Base and Antonio Bautista Air Base demonstrate this dual-use infrastructure concept.

Humanitarian and Disaster Response

The strategic position of US bases in the Philippines allows for quick deployment of resources and troops for disaster relief operations. In recent years, these facilities have played an important role in response to natural disasters including typhoons and earthquakes, giving quick humanitarian and logistical support to impacted communities. Beyond military activities, US bases have played a critical role in delivering humanitarian relief during crises. For example, following Typhoon Odette in 2021, US personnel stationed in the Philippines rapidly mobilized to supply food, water, and medical supplies to devastated villages, demonstrating the bases’ dual duty in defense and humanitarian aid.

Challenges and Controversies

Political and Public Opinion

In 2024, worries about Philippine sovereignty continue to drive arguments over the existence of US military bases in the nation. Critics believe that the expanding US military footprint under the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) violates national sovereignty, with some MPs and activists advocating for greater openness and restrictions on US military activity. These concerns are heightened by fears that the Philippines would be pushed into conflict because of its alignment with US strategic goals in the area, particularly in the context of China. Local communities and activist groups have organized protests, claiming concerns over potential social upheavals, land loss, and the perceived erosion of national sovereignty, which reflect a greater distrust of foreign military involvement and a desire for the Philippines to take a more autonomous foreign policy stance.

Environmental Impacts

The environmental impact of US military outposts in the Philippines has become a growing concern in 2024. Environmental groups have expressed concern about the potential damage to ecosystems, particularly in sensitive locations such as Palawan, where the Antonio Bautista Air Base is located. Deforestation, pollution from military exercises, and the potential of oil spills have all been cited as risks to the local ecology, prompting calls for tighter environmental regulation and responsibility. In response to these concerns, the US and Philippine governments have agreed to implement mitigation measures to mitigate the environmental impact of military operations. This includes stronger waste management legislation, biodiversity conservation measures, and green infrastructure expenditures.

End Note

In essence, the presence of U.S. military bases in the Philippines, reinforced by the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA), serves as a pivotal element in maintaining regional security, enhancing disaster response capabilities, and fostering economic growth. However, this strategic alliance also brings challenges, including concerns about sovereignty, environmental impact, and the potential for geopolitical entanglements. As the U.S. and the Philippines face these complexities, the partnership remains a cornerstone of both nations’ efforts to balance security needs.