“The Study of History lies at the foundation of all sound Military Conclusion & practice” (Alfred Thayer Mahan) 

Alfred Thayer Mahan, a U.S. naval officer and historian, was hailed by John Keegan as “the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century.” His seminal work, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, garnered immediate acclaim, particularly in Europe. This was followed by The Influence of Sea Power Upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812, which cemented his global prominence.

Mahan believed that national greatness was intrinsically linked to sea power, emphasizing its economic utility in peace and control during war. He utilized historical examples to support his beliefs, advocating that the education of naval officers should be grounded in a thorough study of history. Drawing on the principles of Jomini, Mahan stressed the importance of strategic locations such as choke points, canals, and coaling facilities, along with quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet.

He argued that in peacetime, states should enhance production and shipping capacities while acquiring overseas holdings. However, he emphasized that the number of coal fuelling stations and strategic sites should be limited to avoid overextending the mother country’s resources. Mahan posited that a navy’s primary duty was to secure command of the sea, ensuring its own sea communications while denying the adversary access to them and, if necessary, regulating neutral trade. Achieving control of the sea required destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet rather than targeting commerce. This strategy called for a concentration of naval forces composed of numerous well-manned capital ships, operated on the principle that the best defense is a strong offensive.

Mahan also contended that naval dominance, even temporarily, could be crucial in supporting land forces. He envisioned a transnational consortium using naval power to defend a multinational free trade system. His pre-submarine era ideas slowed the adoption of convoys as a defensive measure against the German U-boat campaign in World War I. By the 1930s, the U.S. Navy had developed long-range submarines to attack Japanese ships. However, during World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy, adhering to Mahan’s doctrines, used their submarines as fleet auxiliaries and failed to target American supply lines effectively.

Analyzing the Spanish-American War, Mahan noted the vast distances in the Pacific necessitated a battle fleet with long-range striking power. He believed that competent political and naval leadership were as crucial as geography in the development of sea power. His political analysis favored a transnational consortium over a single nation-state and aimed for free commerce rather than autarky. Mahan’s understanding of geography’s impact on strategy was tempered by his recognition of contingency’s role in shaping outcomes.

China’s Attraction to Mahan’s 

China’s naval establishment has long revered the writings of Alfred Thayer Mahan. It is no exaggeration to say that no single thinker has had a greater influence on Chinese maritime policy since post-revolutionary China began focusing on the sea in the late twentieth century. However, this is changing. Chinese naval strategists are increasingly drawn to the works of British naval thinker Sir Julian Corbett. This shift reflects and promotes a significant change in Chinese grand strategy, with implications for the United States and the entire Indo-Pacific region.

Mahan’s primary arguments, while innovative in the nineteenth century, are relatively straightforward. He asserted that great nations, even innately insular ones like the United States, have crucial maritime interests ranging from coastal defense to the protection of major commerce routes. Consequently, every truly great power must safeguard its interests from potential threats. For Mahan, this meant that a powerful nation must control the world’s oceans. He argued that such dominance could only be achieved by decisively defeating the enemy’s major fleet in battle. Therefore, commerce raiding and other fragmented naval operations were distractions that could never be strategically decisive. The concentration of forces and what Mahan termed “offensive defense” were essential to achieving “command of the seas,” which he saw as the primary goal of great power naval strategy.

The reasons for Mahan’s popularity among both American and Chinese navalists are evident. Mahan wrote for and about a rising power, the United States, which was realizing the need to secure key maritime interests to prosper and fulfill its destiny as a great power. Initially, he believed these interests were concentrated in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the sea lanes that would emerge with the opening of the Panama Canal. As his ideas evolved and U.S. interests extended beyond nearby waters, Mahan focused on the far seas, which he deemed critical to U.S. security and prosperity. This perspective appealed to American leaders such as President Theodore Roosevelt, who envisioned the United States as a true global superpower. Successive generations of American naval and political leaders saw that as the United States established itself as a global power, it required a navy capable of global operations.

Contemporary Chinese naval and political leaders are drawn to Mahan’s ideas for similar reasons. As market reforms spurred economic growth in the 1980s and 1990s, and China became more dependent on seaborne trade, Chinese officials recognized the importance of securing their maritime interests. Initially, these interests were framed in terms of China’s near seas: dominating the waters of the East and South China Seas, following a rough curve from Japan in the north, past Taiwan and the Philippines, down to Singapore and Malaysia, and preventing China from being hemmed in by the “First Island Chain.” Later, as China’s maritime trade routes globalized, Chinese naval strategists shifted their focus to the far seas, which were increasingly seen as vital to Chinese security and prosperity. Throughout these periods, Mahan’s works provided a conceptual foundation for considering the naval strategy best suited for a rising China. Although the Chinese naval establishment largely rejected Mahan’s ideas on decisive battles and removing the enemy fleet from the seas, they enthusiastically embraced his views on the necessity for a great power to have a navy capable of global operations.

Shift to Julian Corbett

Chinese naval strategists have inherited and adapted Mahan’s notion that a great state needs a fleet capable of seizing control of critical waterways and choke points from powerful adversaries, ensuring the security of global commerce on which its prosperity depends. They also internalized his view that a truly great power requires a truly powerful navy, capable of not just safeguarding its maritime interests but also projecting its influence globally. However, over the last decade or two, Chinese navalists have increasingly turned to the work of British naval historian Sir Julian Corbett.

Corbett agreed with Mahan on the importance of controlling vital sea channels for both military and commercial interests but differed on several key points. Most fundamentally, Corbett disagreed with Mahan’s near-exclusive emphasis on achieving ultimate dominance of the seas by annihilating the enemy’s naval might in decisive battles. Mahan’s basic idea of “naval strategy” was that comprehensive command of the seas was always the best method to achieve a great power’s broad strategic goals, accomplished by sweeping the enemy fleet away. Corbett, however, believed that each great power’s grand strategy necessitated a unique “maritime strategy.” While Mahan advocated for bringing the enemy’s main fleet to battle and destroying it in a decisive engagement, Corbett suggested that maritime strategy could also involve temporary and limited “control of the sea,” blockade, trade raiding and defense, or homeland defense, depending on the grand strategy being pursued. Corbett, like Clausewitz, believed that politics should always dictate military strategy, and that maritime policy should be based on a nation’s specific political goals, objectives, and limitations.

There are several reasons for Chinese navalists’ growing interest in Corbett’s work. Perhaps the most important cause has been a significant shift in China’s grand strategy over the last decade or so. For much of the post-revolutionary period, China’s strategy was one of geopolitical prudence, even isolationism, with priorities focused on defending the Chinese mainland, reintegrating lost territories, and pressing limited claims to disputed territories. However, in recent decades, China has effectively adopted a new grand strategy, best described as “offshore balancing.”

This strategy involves three main components:

1. Securing Land and Maritime Borders: China is committed to securing its borders, including sovereignty over the waters along the new ten dash line in the South China Sea, disputed territories along its boundary with India, islands claimed in the East China Sea, and Taiwan. This also includes preventing the United States from threatening the Chinese mainland or intervening in territorial disputes involving China.
2. Dominating Immediate Neighbors: China aims to dominate its immediate neighbors, both territorially contiguous ones (e.g., Nepal, Bhutan, and Vietnam) and those in the maritime region between its home waters and the Second Island Chain.
3. Maintaining a Favorable Balance of Power: China seeks to maintain a favorable balance of power as far afield as the Third Island Chain (encompassing Alaska, Hawaii, and New Zealand), the Fourth Island Chain (linking Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Diego Garcia), and the Fifth Island Chain (stretching from Djibouti to South Africa, including the Persian Gulf). In this context, a favorable balance of power is one that is not dominated by a single state but leans toward China, implying an unfavorable balance for the United States.

Corbett’s theories align well with this grand strategy, as they emphasize the need for a flexible maritime strategy tailored to specific political goals. For China, this means developing the capability to:

• Deter, Delay, and Weaken Potential U.S. Military Engagement: China aims to prevent, delay, and, if necessary, weaken any potential U.S. military involvement in maritime sovereignty issues or conflicts involving Taiwan. This strategy focuses on protecting China’s coastline and ports while establishing and defending sovereignty claims.
• Deny U.S. Command of the Seas: China seeks to deny the United States control over commercially and strategically important waterways and chokepoints. This requires maintaining a persistent maritime presence in strategic locations, even under hostile conditions and for extended periods.
• Counter India’s Naval Capabilities: China aims to prevent India from controlling or disrupting crucial sea routes and choke points leading to the Fifth Island Chain.

China has been implementing this maritime strategy for more than a decade. It has developed and deployed air, naval, and missile forces to create an anti-access/ area-denial (A2/AD) bubble encompassing the East China Sea, Taiwan, and the South China Sea, including its entire coastline and disputed islands. These forces include submarines, surface combatants, aircraft, anti-aircraft weapons, and anti-ship cruise missiles, supported by major naval bases in Qingdao, Ningbo, Zhanjiang, and Hainan Island, as well as installations in the Paracel and Spratly Islands.

Beyond these near seas defensive zone, China has deployed naval forces to dominate the seas up to the Second Island Chain. These forces include modern land-attack ballistic and cruise missiles capable of striking U.S. military sites on Okinawa and Guam, as well as anti-ship ballistic missiles with advanced re-entry vehicle technology, designed to deter, delay, and, if necessary, impair U.S. military operations, denying the U.S. control of the seas within the Second Island Chain.

China is also extending its reach beyond the Fifth Island Chain. It frequently deploys ships, including nuclear-powered submarines, in the Indian Ocean and surrounding areas, maintains a naval station in Djibouti, and controls port facilities in Hambantota, Sri Lanka, and Gwadar, Pakistan. Additionally, China reportedly has a military observation base on Myanmar’s Coco Islands in the Bay of Bengal, facilitating Chinese naval access to the Indian Ocean. Recently, China and Iran formed a strategic alliance, including joint training, research and weapon development, intelligence sharing, and Chinese investment in Iranian ports, adding to China’s “string of pearls.”

As China completes its offshore balancing infrastructure, Chinese carrier strike groups may begin to patrol the Indian Ocean regularly, challenging U.S. and allied naval dominance in the region. 

End Note

“Force is never more operative than what it is known to exist but is not brandished”

Alfred Thayer Mahan’s influence on maritime strategy, particularly in the context of the South China Sea, remains profound and enduring. Mahan, a prominent naval theorist of the late 19th century, emphasized the strategic significance of sea power in shaping global geopolitics. His ideas highlight the importance of controlling maritime routes and establishing naval dominance to secure national interests and global influence.

In the South China Sea, Mahan’s theories resonate deeply as nations vie for control over critical sea lanes and disputed territories rich in natural resources. Mahan’s concept of sea power has influenced modern maritime strategies in the region, prompting countries like China, Vietnam, the Philippines, and others to invest heavily in naval capabilities and infrastructure. China, in particular, has drawn from Mahan’s principles to assert its claims over almost the entire South China Sea. This has been achieved through a combination of naval expansion, island-building, and diplomatic maneuvering to strengthen its position. This strategy reflects Mahan’s emphasis on the strategic value of controlling key maritime chokepoints and establishing naval dominance to secure economic and military advantages.

Moreover, Mahan’s theories continue to shape international responses to China’s assertiveness in the South China Sea. The United States and its allies, adhering to Mahanian principles, have adopted strategies aimed at preserving freedom of navigation and countering China’s expansive claims through enhanced naval presence, multilateral partnerships, and support for regional allies. This approach underscores Mahan’s enduring relevance in contemporary naval doctrine, where the South China Sea has become a focal point of geopolitical competition and strategic maneuvering.

In essence, Alfred Thayer Mahan’s theories on sea power have profoundly influenced the strategic calculus in the South China Sea and continue to shape modern maritime strategies. His emphasis on naval dominance, control of maritime routes, and the strategic value of sea lanes remains pertinent as nations navigate complex geopolitical dynamics in one of the world’s most contested maritime regions. 

On April 21, 2024, South Korea voiced strong disapproval over Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida’s visit and offering at Tokyo’s Yasukuni Shrine, a site that Beijing and Seoul view as a symbol of Japan’s historical military aggression. The shrine commemorates around 2.5 million war dead, including 14 Japanese wartime leaders convicted as war criminals by an Allied tribunal. This action has sparked renewed tensions, as it is not the first time such visits have elicited protests from South Korea and China.

South Korea’s response emphasized the need for Japanese leaders to confront their nation’s wartime history with honesty, humility, and genuine repentance. Seoul sees this as essential groundwork for fostering improved relations between the two countries. Visits to Yasukuni Shrine by Japanese leaders have consistently provoked outrage from both China and South Korea due to the shrine’s association with convicted war criminals alongside other war dead.

Prime Minister Kishida’s recent offering at Yasukuni Shrine has rekindled longstanding sensitivities and disagreements over this contentious issue, highlighting deep-seated historical grievances that continue to strain relations in East Asia. This move, which took place on April 21, 2024, has drawn sharp condemnation from South Korea, which expressed “deep disappointment” over what it sees as a failure by Japanese leaders to address their country’s historical responsibilities.

The Yasukuni Shrine, established in 1869 during Japan’s Meiji era, is intended to honor the souls of those who died in service to their nation. However, the shrine’s legacy is complex, as it also enshrines 14 Class-A war criminals convicted by the Allies after World War II. This duality has made Yasukuni a flashpoint for regional tensions, particularly with South Korea and China.

In response to Kishida’s actions, South Korea urged Japanese leaders to confront history with humility and repentance, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging wartime atrocities as a foundation for improved bilateral ties. Japanese officials, however, defend visits to Yasukuni Shrine as matters of cultural tradition and national identity, asserting that they honor fallen soldiers without endorsing past aggression. For many Japanese citizens, the shrine holds personal significance as a place to mourn loved ones lost in battle.

The incident reflects broader regional dynamics shaped by historical grievances and territorial disputes. The complexities of historical memory pose formidable challenges as each country seeks to assert its national identity and security interests.

Have you ever pondered why the Philippines stands out more in contrast to its neighbouring nations?

The Filipino are globally recognized for their warm and hospitable demeanour. They embody hospitality to the fullest extent. Their smiles shine as brightly as their tropical sun, and their hearts are as vast as their archipelago. Within their communities, there exists a distinctive blend of joy and resilience, reflecting a caring and amiable spirit. Whether one is a local or a visitor, Filipinos welcome them as part of the family, ensuring they feel at home in their stunning islands. Known for their willingness to extend a helping hand, their kindness knows no bounds, surpassing cultural and linguistic differences.

The Philippines host a wealth of endemic wildlife. It is home to a plethora of distinctive species found nowhere else on planet earth. Take, for example, the Tarsiers, the world’s smallest primates. These captivating creatures, with their large eyes and agile bodies, are a sight to behold. However, the biodiversity extends beyond them. The archipelago is rich with a diverse range of flora and fauna, from the vibrant coral reefs beneath the ocean’s surface to the verdant rainforests that cover the islands. Every corner of the Philippines teems with life. It is this abundant blend of biodiversity that distinguishes the Philippines on the global stage.

The Philippines is a paradise for divers. Picture yourself diving into the depths of the Pacific Ocean, where history and nature converge in a spectacular display. Here, you’ll find a wealth of sunken Japanese shipwrecks from the Second World War, serving as silent reminders of the past. These underwater relics have transformed into thriving habitats for a diverse array of marine life, providing an otherworldly diving experience. From coral reefs filled with colourful fish to encounters with the magnificent whale sharks, the underwater scenery is truly breathtaking. And let’s not forget the occasional sighting of graceful sea turtles gliding by or playful dolphins leaping in the waves. It’s like entering a whole new realm where each dive promises a unique adventure for enthusiasts.

Let’s not overlook the Jeepneys. Picture a mobile kaleidoscope, a burst of vibrant hues and distinctive designs. That’s what a jeepney is all about. These aren’t your ordinary vehicles, mind you. Originating from the remnants of World War II, these former U.S. Military Jeeps were repurposed into a beloved mode of public transportation. Each one serves as a canvas, reflecting the owner’s individual flair, often adorned with religious, patriotic, or even pop culture themes. They’re more than just a way to get from one place to another; they’re a rolling symbol of the Filipino spirit of ingenuity and artistic expression. Beyond mere transportation, they represent Filipino culture, embodying the nation’s lively spirit.The Philippines, a nation abundant with natural wonders, boasts multiple active volcanoes. These geological marvels are not only captivating, but also attract adventurers and nature enthusiasts worldwide. Among them, three stand out: Mount Pinatubo, Taal, and Mayon. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 was one of the largest of the 20th century, leaving behind a stunning crater lake. Taal, one of the world’s smallest volcanoes, is unique as it sits within a lake. Meanwhile, Mayon is renowned for its nearly perfect cone shape. These volcanoes not only draw tourists but also enrich the country’s soils, contributing to its status as a vital agricultural place. Their majestic and fiery presence adds an element of danger and excitement to the Philippines.

Moving on to the Philippines’ remarkable archipelago, this beautiful country comprises of more than 7,100 islands, each with its own distinct charm. Picture yourself relaxing on pristine beaches with the azure sea gently lapping at your feet, or exploring vibrant local markets and sampling a variety of exotic foods. Each island radiates a unique culture, woven from centuries of traditions and customs. From the bustling streets of Manila to the serene landscapes of Palawan, the Philippines embodies a land of contrasts.

Let’s explore the massage culture deeply ingrained in the Philippines lifestyle, often overlooked but rich in tradition. In every city and town, you’re likely to find a massage parlor or spa. Whether in the bustling streets of Manila or the secluded beaches of Palawan, a soothing massage is always within reach. These massages go beyond mere relaxation after a long day; they reflect Filipinos’ belief in holistic wellness. From traditional hilot massage, a centuries-old healing technique, to modern spa therapies, each session offers a journey to relaxation and rejuvenation. What’s more, these massages are remarkably affordable. Whether you’re a local or a tourist, indulging in a soothing massage is a must when in the Philippines. In the Philippines, relaxation isn’t just a luxury; it’s a way of life.

Another wonderland of the Philippines is Puerto Princesa Underground River. It isn’t just a river; it’s a journey into the depths of the Earth. Located on the island of Palawan, this underground marvel stretches for 8 kilometres, guiding you through a subterranean world filled with stalactites and stalagmites, where darkness blends with the gentle flow of the river. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New Seven Wonders of Nature, it has become a must-visit destination for explorers and nature enthusiasts alike. Picture yourself gliding through an underground cathedral, where each corner holds a story of millions of years back from the history. It covers the essence of untouched beauty and thrilling adventure.

For over 300 years, the Philippines was under Spanish rule, leaving a lasting impact on the country’s cultural landscape. This influence is evident in various aspects of Filipino life. One of the most prominent legacies of Spanish colonization is seen in the country’s architecture. The Spanish introduced a fusion of native and European styles, resulting in a distinctive architectural form known as Bahay na Bato. These stone houses, decorated with sleek carvings and capiz shell windows, can still be found in many parts of the country, serving as a reminder of the country’s colonial past.

In the realm of art, the Spanish brought Western painting techniques and styles, which Filipino artists embraced and adapted to reflect their own experiences and perspectives. This amalgamation of Eastern and Western influences has given rise to a diverse and vibrant art scene. Similarly, Spanish influence permeates Philippine literature, from epic folk narratives to lyrical love songs known as Kundiman. Spanish literary forms have been interwoven into Filipino storytelling, filling it with a richness and depth that continues to dazzle audiences today.

Another uniqueness of the Philippines is their cuisine, which is a fascinating blend of influences from its diverse history, offering a flavourful journey that tantalizes the taste buds. Take, for instance, the infamous balut—a fertilized duck egg boiled and eaten in its shell—a delicacy not for the faint-hearted but a must-try for adventurous foodies. Then there’s adobo, hailed as the unofficial national dish, featuring a mix of soy sauce, vinegar, garlic, and spices simmered with chicken or pork, leaving a mouth-watering taste. Let’s not overlook the vibrant street food scene, offering skewered barbecue meats and the sweet and satisfying halo-halo—a popular dessert made with crushed ice, milk, and various other ingredients like sweet beans, jello, and fruits.