Manila has long cast a longing glance at Tokyo. Japan’s post-World War II economic miracle—a phoenix rising from ashes—is a tale etched into the annals of global capitalism. Now, the Philippines, a nation of 118 million, is attempting its own ascent. But can it replicate the Japanese magic formula?

The archipelago’s economy has been on a tear. Growth rates have outpaced most of Southeast Asia, sustained by a burgeoning call center industry, remittances from overseas Filipino workers, and a growing consumer class. Infrastructure projects, once the stuff of political promises, are now breaking ground. The question is: is this a sustainable boom, or a mirage shimmering in the tropical sun?

I. Economic Growth

The Philippines’ recent economic trajectory contrasts sharply with Japan’s post-World War II economic miracle. Japan’s rapid economic growth from 1945 to 1991, known as the “Japanese Economic Miracle,” was characterized by disciplined fiscal policies, deliberate industrial development, and significant infrastructure investments. This period saw Japan’s economy grow at a rate twice as fast as the prewar average every year after 1955, achieving a peak last seen in 1939 in less than ten years.

Japan’s unique political structure, characterized by strong centralized authority, social consensus, and a long-term perspective, fostered an environment conducive to implementing consistent and far-reaching economic policies. This, coupled with deeply ingrained cultural values of respect for authority, discipline, and collective good, contributed significantly to the nation’s rapid post-war recovery. Ezra Vogel, in his seminal work “Japan as Number One: Lessons for America,” highlighted how Japan’s economic policies were marked by a “remarkable coherence and stability.”

In contrast, the Philippines has struggled to achieve steady economic growth despite having abundant natural resources and a youthful labor force. The Philippines’ efforts to emulate Japan’s swift rise have been impeded by policy changes, political unpredictability, and infrastructure deficiencies. While Japan’s economic policies were marked by stability and continuity, the Philippines has faced a more fragmented political landscape, making long-term planning more challenging.

Despite all these challenges, The Philippines’ real GDP is projected to grow by 0.2 percentage points annually between 2024 and 2029, reaching 6.4 percent by 2029. In 2023, approved foreign investments in the Philippines amounted to roughly 889 billion Philippine Pesos, with the power, gas, steam, and air conditioning sectors receiving the largest share. However, no foreign investments were made in the public sector that year, particularly in defense and administration, including mandatory social security. In May 2024, the Philippines’ trade balance showed a deficit of USD 4.6 billion, slightly down from the previous month’s deficit of USD 4.7 billion. The main economic sectors of the Philippines are manufacturing, agriculture, private services, and trade, with agriculture, forestry, and fishing contributing 8.6% of the GDP in 2023.

The construction industry is also a significant player in the Philippines’ economy, with a projected contribution of 7% to the GDP in 2023. The national government’s infrastructure initiative has generated employment opportunities for thousands of Filipinos and attracted foreign investments worth around 14.2 million Philippine Pesos.

The services sector, comprising business process outsourcing, retail, real estate, and tourism, has been a key driver of the Philippine economy. Despite global challenges such as climate change and economic volatility, the country has made progress in poverty reduction, with rates declining from 23.3% in 2015 to 18.1% in 2021.

Economic growth in the Philippines is expected to accelerate to 5.8% in 2024, up from 5.5% the previous year, and reach 5.9% in 2025.

The medium-term economic projection is expected to be sustained by healthy domestic demand, driven by a strong labor market, ongoing public investments, and potential benefits of recent revisions to investment policy that may encourage private investment. With sustained recovery and reform initiatives, the nation is regaining momentum toward its goal of becoming an upper middle-income country, with a gross national income per capita of US$4,230 in 2023.

II. Political Landscape

Japan is seen as having a parliamentary system, whereas the Philippines is a presidential one. The Japanese political system is a bicameral parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a dominating party system. The Emperor serves as the head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government and the Cabinet, which oversees the executive branch.

The Philippines is a democratic nation with a president who is chosen directly by the populace to fulfill the dual roles of head of state and head of government. The president is a significant political person who leads the executive branch. When assessing the influence of stability and governance on economic growth, Japan and the Philippines offer significant insights. Although Japan’s economic dominance has been bolstered by stability, the democratic administration of the Philippines provides opportunities for response to public demands and participatory decision-making.

III. Infrastructure Development

Underdeveloped infrastructure is a significant obstacle to the Philippines growth. Congested roads, inefficient ports, and unreliable power supply constrain economic activity and deter foreign investment.

The “Build Better More” program, which replaced the “Build! Build! Build!” initiative, aims to improve the country’s infrastructure. According to data from the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), as of April 2024, out of the 185 projects that were identified, 35% were still in progress, and less than 1% had been finished since 2022. The primary sources of project funding for this nine-billion-peso project are public-private partnerships (PPP), official development aid (ODA), and the General Appropriations Act (GAA).

Japan’s post-war infrastructure development was pivotal for its economic growth. Investments in manufacturing and heavy industries necessitated rapid urbanization and infrastructure development, creating a solid foundation for industrial growth. “Japan’s development strategy was heavily dependent on infrastructure investments, which became the backbone of its industrialization policy,” wrote Chalmers Johnson in his book “MITI and the Japanese Miracle.”

Japan’s industrialization policy was largely dependent on its infrastructure investments, which enabled effective connectivity and logistics to promote export-oriented companies and economic growth. While promoting economic development through infrastructure investment is a similar objective of both Japan’s post-World War II infrastructure projects and the Philippines’ Build, Build, Build program, they differ in scale, breadth, and historical context.

IV. Industrial Policy and Innovation

Japan’s post-war industrial policy emphasized key industries such as steel, automotive, and electronics. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry played a crucial role in guiding industrial development through subsidies, tax incentives, and preferential financing. Japan also heavily invested in technological innovation and R&D, fostering a skilled workforce capable of driving industrial growth.

In comparison, the Philippines has faced challenges in establishing a robust industrial base. While the country has seen growth in industries such as electronics, business process outsourcing (BPO), and agriculture, it has yet to achieve the same level of industrial diversification and technological advancement as Japan. The Philippine government has recognized the need for industrial policy reforms and increased investment in innovation to drive sustainable economic growth.

The Philippine Development Plan 2023-2028 outlines strategies to enhance industrial productivity, including improving the regulatory environment, fostering innovation, and promoting technology adoption. The government aims to develop a competitive industrial sector by supporting micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and attracting foreign direct investment (FDI). Additionally, initiatives to enhance education and skills training are underway to build a workforce capable of supporting a modern industrial economy.

V. Human Capital Development

Human capital development has been a cornerstone of both Japan’s and the Philippines’ economic strategies, albeit with differing approaches and outcomes. Japan’s post-war economic miracle was significantly aided by its investment in education and workforce training. The Japanese government prioritized universal education, with a strong emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This created a highly skilled and disciplined workforce that could meet the demands of rapidly advancing industries.

Japan’s cultural values, such as diligence, teamwork, and respect for authority, further reinforced its human capital development efforts. The Japanese education system and corporate culture emphasized lifelong learning, continuous improvement (kaizen), and innovation. These factors contributed to a workforce that was not only technically proficient but also adaptable and committed to excellence.

In the Philippines, human capital development is recognized as a key driver of economic growth. The government has made strides in improving access to education and healthcare, which are essential components of human capital. However, challenges remain, particularly in terms of education quality, skills mismatch, and underemployment.

The Philippine’s government is working to align educational curricula with industry needs, promote technical and vocational education, and expand access to higher education. Efforts to improve healthcare services and social protection are also part of the broader strategy to build a healthy, educated, and productive workforce.

The Philippines’ young and growing population presents both opportunities and challenges. With a median age of around 25 years, the country has a demographic dividend that can drive economic growth if properly harnessed. Investing in education, skills development, and health services is crucial to maximizing the potential of this demographic advantage.

VI. Trade and Foreign Policy

Japan’s economic success was supported by a pragmatic approach to international relations, focusing on economic cooperation and regional integration. The United States played a significant role in Japan’s recovery, providing financial aid and access to the American market. This fostered a strong trade relationship that was pivotal to Japan’s export-oriented growth.

Strong exports of machinery, electronics, and cars characterize Japanese trade, which has helped the nation achieve a positive trade balance. Japan has pursued free trade agreements (FTAs) to expand its access to international markets and promote economic growth. By promoting trade and fostering economic cooperation, these accords with nations in the Asia-Pacific area, North America, and Europe have been essential in boosting Japan’s economic development.

In comparison, the Philippines has faced a more complex geopolitical landscape. While the country has made progress in establishing trade agreements and regional partnerships, it has had to navigate tensions in the South China Sea and shifting global trade dynamics. The Philippines’ strategic location in Southeast Asia presents both opportunities and challenges for its trade and foreign policy.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) plays a significant role in the Philippines’ trade strategy. ASEAN’s economic integration initiatives, such as the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), aim to enhance regional trade and investment flows. The Philippines has also pursued bilateral trade agreements with key trading partners, including the United States, Japan, and the European Union.

Efforts to diversify export markets and reduce reliance on a few key trading partners are part of the Philippines’ trade strategy. The country aims to enhance its competitiveness in global value chains by improving trade facilitation, infrastructure, and logistics. Additionally, initiatives to promote exports of high-value goods and services, such as electronics, garments, and IT services, are being implemented to boost trade performance.

VII. Challenges and Obstacles

The Philippines’ economic journey is not without its challenges and obstacles. Political instability, corruption, and bureaucratic inefficiencies have hindered the country’s progress. Environmental issues, such as natural disasters and climate change, pose significant risks to sustainable development.

Political instability has been a recurring issue in the Philippines, affecting investor confidence and policy continuity. Frequent changes in leadership and political turmoil have created an unpredictable business environment. Corruption remains a major challenge, with the country consistently ranking low on Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index. Addressing these issues is crucial for creating a conducive environment for economic growth and development.

Environmental challenges also pose significant risks to the Philippines’ economic prospects. The country is highly vulnerable to natural disasters, such as typhoons, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. These events can cause widespread damage to infrastructure, disrupt economic activities, and exacerbate poverty and inequality. Climate change further amplifies these risks, with rising sea levels, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changing weather patterns affecting agriculture, fisheries, and coastal communities.

The Philippine government has recognized the need to address these challenges and has implemented various measures to mitigate their impact. Efforts to strengthen disaster preparedness and response capabilities, improve governance and transparency, and promote sustainable development are underway. The government is also working to enhance climate resilience through initiatives such as reforestation, coastal protection, and sustainable agriculture practices.

End Note:

The Philippines stands at a critical juncture in its economic journey. While it has made significant progress in recent years, achieving sustained and inclusive growth remains a formidable challenge. The experiences of Japan offer valuable lessons and insights that can guide the Philippines in its quest for economic transformation.

Japan’s post-war economic miracle was built on a foundation of strong governance, strategic industrial policy, investment in human capital, and international trade. While the Philippines faces a different set of challenges and opportunities, it can draw inspiration from Japan’s experience and adapt these lessons to its unique context.

To realize its full potential, the Philippines must prioritize good governance, political stability, and policy continuity. Strengthening institutions, improving transparency, and reducing corruption are essential for creating a conducive environment for investment and economic growth. Additionally, investing in infrastructure, education, and healthcare will be crucial for building a resilient and productive workforce.

The Philippines’ young and dynamic population presents a unique opportunity for demographic dividends. By investing in human capital development, promoting innovation, and fostering a competitive industrial sector, the country can unlock new sources of growth and development.

While the road ahead is challenging, the Philippines has the potential to become a major economic player in the region. By learning from Japan’s experience and implementing bold and visionary policies, the Philippines can chart a path towards sustained and inclusive growth, realizing its aspirations of becoming the next economic miracle in Asia.

In global geopolitics, Latin America has emerged as a region of profound historical depth and contemporary relevance. From the bustling markets of Brazil to the expansive landscapes of Patagonia, this continent has long been a stage for the ambitions of nations and empires. Over the past two decades, China has increasingly shaped this narrative, transforming its sporadic historical ties into robust economic partnerships and strategic engagements. As South America’s foremost trading partner, surpassing even the United States, China’s influence extends deeply into sectors like energy, infrastructure, and space. Its significant investments have enhanced economic growth in countries such as Brazil and Venezuela. Despite these economic benefits, China’s expanding footprint has sparked debates on environmental impact, local sovereignty, and broader geopolitical implications. The United States and its allies closely monitor Beijing’s actions, wary of potential uses of economic ties for geopolitical leverage, such as influencing Taiwan’s isolation or supporting authoritarian regimes in Cuba and Venezuela. President Joe Biden has highlighted China’s role as a strategic competitor in Latin America.

Let’s explore this topic in detail.

Economic Ties Between China and Latin America

China has become one of the most significant export destinations for Latin American countries. As of now, China is South America’s largest trading partner and ranks second in Latin America and the Caribbean after the United States. In 2000, less than 2% of Latin America’s exports were directed to China. However, the region’s commodities boom, driven by China’s rapid growth and increasing domestic demand, saw trade with China surge at an average annual rate of 31% over the next decade, reaching $180 billion by 2010. By 2021, trade hit a record $450 billion and remained stable in 2022, with projections suggesting it could surpass $700 billion by 2035. Currently, China is the primary trading partner for South America and holds a significant position across Latin America, second only to the United States. Major exports from Latin America to China include soybeans, copper, petroleum, oil, and other essential raw materials for China’s industrial development.

This dynamic has resulted in Latin America importing a significant amount of higher value-added manufactured goods from China, which some analysts argue has undercut local industries with cheaper Chinese products. By 2023, China had established free trade agreements with Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica, with discussions for a similar deal with Uruguay ongoing. Furthermore, 21 Latin American countries have ratified China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Chinese loans and foreign direct investment (FDI) play crucial roles in strengthening these relationships. In 2022, China’s FDI in Latin America and the Caribbean was about $12 billion, representing nearly 9% of all FDI in the region. From 2005 to 2020, the China Development Bank and the Export-Import Bank of China extended $137 billion in loans to Latin American governments, primarily financing infrastructure and energy projects in exchange for oil. In 2022 alone, these loans amounted to $813 million. Venezuela is the largest borrower, with $60 billion in state loans from China, predominantly for infrastructure and energy projects, which is almost twice as much as the second-largest borrower, Brazil. China also holds voting memberships in the Caribbean Development Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank.

Currently, 22 out of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries are actively involved in Chinese ambitious project, Belt and Road Initiative. New transportation connections, such as the container ship route linking the Chinese port of Dalian with Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia, are anticipated. 2024 is expected to bring new areas of economic cooperation, additional Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), and the consolidation of the digital Silk Road, alongside plans by the Chinese government to enhance the BRI. The market for Chinese imports is likely to continue expanding for products like soybeans, copper, iron, oil, and lithium, the latter being crucial for China’s leading electric vehicle manufacturing industry. Trade is currently concentrated in five countries—Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Peru, and Colombia—which account for over 89% of all regional exports to China.

Investments and Infrastructure

Since the introduction of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013, cumulative participation has surpassed $1 trillion, reaching $1.053 trillion. This includes $419 billion in non-financial investments and approximately $634 billion in building contracts. In 2023, BRI construction investments in Latin America amounted to $180 million, slightly more than the $170 million invested in Pacific BRI countries. However, BRI countries in Latin America saw a 92% increase in overall investments, totaling over $5.5 billion and accounting for 20.5% of all Chinese BRI overseas investments. China’s mining and metals industry, valued at $19.4 billion, is experiencing significant growth, particularly in minerals and metals like lithium, which are crucial for the green transition and electric vehicle batteries. Notable engagement has occurred in Bolivia, Chile, several African nations, and Indonesia. China already dominates a substantial portion of the world’s mining resources, such as over 80% of the world’s graphite reserves, and holds significant sway over raw material processing, owning more than 50% of the world’s capacity to process graphite, lithium, nickel, and cobalt.

In 2023, $4.2 billion was invested in rail projects across Africa, Latin America, and East Asia, including the Kinshasa urban railway in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Most of these projects were funded by construction contracts.

Despite these trends, Chinese investments and financing in BRI countries increased in 2023, with expectations for a potential recovery in BRI funding and construction contracts by 2024. Investments in green growth boosters are deemed necessary for promoting the green transformation in China and BRI nations. This includes prospects in mining and mineral processing, technology (such as EV and battery manufacturing), and green energy (such as electricity production and transmission). China’s focus on renewable energy, batteries, and electric vehicles, termed the “New Three,” highlights these sectors’ importance.

Chinese participation in the BRI is expected to remain robust in 2024. An increase in deal counts is anticipated, and deal sizes are expected to remain higher than in 2021 and 2022, especially in sectors requiring substantial investment, such as mining and manufacturing. Meanwhile, resource-backed transactions and transportation infrastructure projects, like strategic rail and road connections to mines and oil and gas pipelines, are likely to continue but may not yield immediate financial returns.

Political Diplomacy

China’s strategy to broaden its sphere of influence through “South-South cooperation,” which emphasizes trade, investment, and aid, is at the forefront of its diplomatic efforts in Latin America. By fostering cultural and educational exchanges, Beijing has cultivated political goodwill with local governments and positioned itself as a competitive partner to the US and Europe. Numerous high-level political discussions have taken place since former Chinese President Jiang Zemin’s historic thirteen-day tour of Latin America in 2001. Since taking office in 2013, President Xi Jinping has made at least eleven trips to the region. Beyond bilateral accords, China has entered into comprehensive strategic alliances—the highest designation it bestows upon its diplomatic allies—with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

A significant aspect of China’s diplomacy is its effort to isolate Taiwan. Latin America’s support for Taiwan has decreased due to Beijing’s refusal to establish diplomatic ties with countries that recognize the island’s sovereignty. In 2023, Honduras became an ally with Beijing after Taipei denied its request for billions of dollars in aid. Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic are other recent switches. Experts suggest that pressure is mounting on the remaining holdouts, like Haiti. Some analysts argue that closer ties between China and Latin America support authoritarian regimes in countries such as Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua. Evan Ellis, a research professor at the U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute, claims that China acts as “an incubator of populism” in these nations. He asserts, “Anti-democratic regimes find a willing partner in the Chinese, not that China is trying to produce antidemocratic regimes.”

China has also focused on specific areas like space cooperation. In 2024, the China-Latin American and Caribbean States Space Cooperation Forum was established to promote cooperation in space applications, research, and technology. This forum aims to use satellite communications and earth observation technology for capacity building, environmental protection, and sustainable development.

Military and Space Cooperation

China is actively strengthening its military ties with Latin American countries through training programs, arms sales, and military exchanges. Venezuela is the region’s largest buyer of Chinese military hardware, a relationship that has flourished despite the U.S. government’s 2006 ban on all commercial arms shipments to Venezuela. Between 2006 and 2022, Beijing reportedly sent $629 million worth of weapons to Venezuela. Additionally, China has supplied Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru with air defense radars, assault rifles, ground vehicles, and military planes, amounting to millions of dollars in sales. Cuba has also sought to deepen its military ties with China by hosting multiple port visits from the People’s Liberation Army.

U.S. intelligence authorities have expressed concerns about evidence suggesting that China is increasing its intelligence sharing with Cuba. China also sent over a hundred riot police to Haiti as part of its participation in the UN peacekeeping operation that began in 2004. Although China withdrew from Haiti less than a decade later, it continues to direct military drills in the region and supplies local law enforcement agencies. During Evo Morales Ayma’s government, China sent military trucks and anti-riot gear to Bolivian police departments. It also provided transportation equipment and motorcycles to police forces in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, and donated tens of thousands of automatic firearms to Ecuador.

In the realm of space cooperation, China has been proactive in establishing collaborative efforts with Latin American countries. The China-Latin American and Caribbean States Space Cooperation Forum, established in 2024, aims to enhance cooperation in space applications, research, and technology. This forum promotes the use of satellite communications and earth observation technology for capacity building, environmental protection, and sustainable development. Through these initiatives, China seeks to bolster its strategic influence in the region and foster technological advancement and innovation.

COVID-19 Response and Vaccine Diplomacy

China’s “COVID-19 diplomacy” in Latin America aimed to boost its standing and win over regional governments through a comprehensive approach. This strategy included lending billions of dollars to nations for purchasing Chinese vaccines, investing in local vaccine production facilities, and sending essential medical supplies such as masks, ventilators, and diagnostic test kits. By June 2022, China had supplied Latin America with over 400 million vaccine doses. Additionally, Beijing signed vaccination agreements with at least a dozen countries in the region, some of which included technology transfers and joint research with Sinovac, a Chinese vaccine manufacturer.

Chile was one of the top recipients of Chinese vaccines, with almost 70% of its COVID-19 vaccination coverage coming from Chinese sources. Other major purchasers included Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru, which also bought tens of millions of doses. However, China’s vaccine diplomacy raised concerns in some countries. For instance, Honduras and Paraguay reported feeling pressured to abandon their recognition of Taiwan in exchange for vaccine doses. Observers suspected that China might also be using its vaccine influence to promote the growth of Huawei, the controversial Chinese telecom giant. A notable example is when Brazilian regulators reversed their previous decision to ban Huawei from participating in the country’s 5G network development, just weeks after China donated millions of vaccine doses to Brasília.

Challenges and Concerns

China made $73 billion in raw material investments in Latin America between 2000 and 2018, including the construction of refineries and processing facilities in nations with substantial reserves of coal, copper, natural gas, oil, and uranium. Recently, China has directed its investments toward lithium production in the Lithium Triangle—Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile—which collectively hold around 50% of the world’s known lithium reserves, a crucial metal for battery manufacturing. Chinese state-owned companies, such as Power China, play a significant role in energy development, with over fifty active projects across fifteen Latin American nations as of late 2022. However, the scale of these projects has exacerbated health and environmental concerns. China is also interested in the renewable energy industry in the area. Major solar and wind projects, including the largest solar plant in Latin America in Jujuy, Argentina, and the Punta Sierra wind farm in Coquimbo, Chile, have been supported by the China Development Bank.

As members of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Uruguay have voting power in the region. Beijing has provided funding for building projects focusing on railroads, ports, and airports. Over a dozen large-scale infrastructure projects driven by China have negatively impacted the environment and local Indigenous communities, according to a 2023 report by the UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. China is still focused on creating and developing “new infrastructure,” which includes 5G technology from telecom companies like Huawei, smart cities, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence (AI). Despite American advisories against doing so, countries in the region are increasingly utilizing Huawei technology, exposing them to potential Chinese cyberthreats. In 2022, Huawei initiated a two-year experimental project called “5G city” in Curitiba, Brazil.

Beijing has aimed to enhance its space collaboration with Latin America, starting with cooperative China-Brazil satellite development and manufacturing in 1988. China now has satellite ground stations in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, and the Patagonian Desert in Argentina, where its largest non-domestic space complex is located. The proximity of these stations to the US has raised concerns about potential espionage on US assets.

While Washington has been preoccupied with other issues, including the aftermath of Russia’s war in Ukraine, American politicians and military leaders have expressed concerns about China’s expanding influence in Latin America. Former chief of US Southern Command Admiral Craig S. Faller stated in 2021 that “immediate action is needed to reverse this trend” because “we are losing our positional advantage in this Hemisphere.” President Donald Trump took a tougher stance than his predecessors by imposing penalties on multiple nations and cutting funding to regional organizations, which some observers claim pushed certain governments closer to Beijing. Additionally, Trump distanced the US from the region’s trade relations by renegotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement and withdrawing from the Trans-Pacific Partnership.

President Joe Biden, who oversaw the region’s strategy on Latin America as Barack Obama’s vice president, has maintained that the US needs to reclaim its leadership position in the region to confront an assertive China. Biden and his Group of Seven (G7) counterparts introduced Build Back Better World (B3W) to challenge China’s Belt and Road Initiative by building infrastructure in low- and middle-income nations, including those in Latin America. However, the Biden administration initially allocated only $6 million to B3W, which was later renamed the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment. At the Americas Summit in 2022, Biden made several new economic commitments and increased the US’s vaccine donations to the region—about 65 million doses by early 2022—while continuing to express concerns about Huawei.

The independent US government organization, the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, has highlighted the challenges posed by Beijing’s increasing influence over Latin America. Senators Bob Menendez (D-NJ) and Marco Rubio (R-FL) have sponsored bipartisan legislation to counter China’s “malign influence” in the region by strengthening multilateral security cooperation and counternarcotics initiatives. Other legislative measures advocate for establishing long-term trade agreements between the United States and Western Hemisphere nations to facilitate the “reshoring” of supply chains from China to more proximate countries.

End Note

China’s increasing influence in Latin America over the past two decades has generated economic opportunities and geopolitical concerns. As China becomes South America’s largest trading partner, surpassing the United States, its state-owned enterprises continue to invest significantly in energy, infrastructure, and space sectors. China’s strategic initiatives, including the Belt and Road Initiative, have strengthened its political, military, and cultural ties with the region, leading to concerns about health, environmental impacts, and potential espionage activities. Despite Washington’s efforts to counter China’s influence, such as through the Build Back Better World initiative and increased economic commitments under President Biden, analysts argue that more proactive measures are necessary. Bipartisan legislation in the US seeks to bolster security cooperation and reshoring of supply chains, emphasizing the urgent need to address Beijing’s growing geopolitical presence in Latin America.

Blockchain technology, first conceptualized by an anonymous entity known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008, has revolutionized the way we think about digital transactions and data security. Initially associated primarily with Bitcoin, blockchain has since evolved into a versatile technology underpinning a wide array of cryptocurrencies and decentralized applications. Over the past decade, its usage has surged dramatically, capturing the curiosity and interest of millions worldwide. One region where this growth is particularly pronounced is Southeast Asia.

The origins of blockchain technology can be traced back to 1991 when researchers Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta introduced a system for timestamping digital documents using cryptography to ensure they couldn’t be tampered with or misdated. However, it wasn’t until nearly two decades later that blockchain found its first real-world application with the launch of Bitcoin.

Today, the adoption of cryptocurrencies is skyrocketing globally, with Southeast Asia emerging as a global hotspot for cryptocurrency adoption. This region’s progressive stance towards cryptocurrency markets, burgeoning digital infrastructure, and the relative scarcity of established banking institutions have created a fertile ground for high-growth startups in the cryptocurrency space. Characterized by its diversity and rising incomes, Southeast Asia is attracting investors and entrepreneurs keen on tapping into the dynamic market opportunities.

According to a recent report by venture capital firm White Star Capital, Southeast Asia is home to over 600 cryptocurrency and blockchain companies. The report highlights that a significant portion of the recent surge in venture capital funding in the region has been directed towards web3, blockchain, and cryptocurrency startups. In 2022 alone, these companies collectively raised more than $1 billion in funding. This trend pinpoints the region’s pivotal role in the global cryptocurrency landscape and its potential as a hub for innovation and growth in the blockchain sector.

As global nomads build new businesses straight from their phones, the impact of blockchain technology continues to evolve, transforming not only finance but also sectors like insurance, supply chains, healthcare, and transportation.

Country-Specific Insights

Singapore stands out as a pioneer in establishing clear and forward-thinking blockchain regulations, including those for tokenized securities. This clarity enables businesses to operate without regulatory ambiguity. The country serves as a key hub for the Asian blockchain industry, hosting the headquarters or holding companies of numerous Asian blockchain startups. Alongside other blockchain-forward regions like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Luxembourg, Singapore is solidifying its position as a central player in the global blockchain landscape.

Thailand leads Southeast Asia in cryptocurrency trading and investing. The country has a well-established middle class that is making substantial investments in digital assets. This robust investment climate positions Thailand as a significant player in the regional cryptocurrency market.

The Philippines has a vibrant Web3 community, with 20–30% of players of Sky Mavis’s Axie Infinity, a pioneering Web3 game, hailing from the country. This high level of engagement makes the Philippines home to one of the largest proportions of Web3 users globally.

Vietnam is emerging as a developer powerhouse and a notable leader in the Web3 space. The country has produced significant blockchain gaming startups like Sky Mavis, and its youthful, talented developers are expected to play a crucial role in the global blockchain ecosystem.

Indonesia, considered Southeast Asia’s elder brother and giant, has the fourth-largest population in the world and a rapidly expanding economy. The country’s potential is enormous, and it is garnering increasing attention over time. Additionally, Bali is praised as a crypto oasis in Southeast Asia, further highlighting Indonesia’s growing significance in the blockchain industry.

Malaysia is a true treasure in the blockchain world, home to prominent blockchain infrastructure and analytics companies such as CoinGecko and EtherScan, which are recognized worldwide. Malaysia’s contributions make it an important player in the global blockchain ecosystem.

Investors and demographics

As of 2022, NBC News estimates that 21% of American adults owned cryptocurrency, highlighting a significant interest in digital assets. Globally, India topped Chainalysis’s worldwide crypto adoption index as of September 2023, with Nigeria and Vietnam rounding out the top three, demonstrating the widespread embrace of cryptocurrency in diverse regions. Developing markets such as the Philippines and Indonesia also show a high number of adopters. In the United States, high earners are disproportionately represented among cryptocurrency investors; 25% of all crypto owners make $100,000 or more a year, compared to 15% of the overall population. Furthermore, a Morning Consult survey reveals a gender disparity in cryptocurrency ownership, with men making up over 70% of bitcoin owners despite representing only 48% of the overall population, while women constitute 30% of cryptocurrency owners.

Crypto Adoption Rates in Southeast Asia

The cryptocurrency market in Southeast Asia is anticipated to reach 1.79 billion dollars in 2024, with an annual growth rate (CAGR 2024-2028) estimated at 8.75%. This growth trajectory is expected to result in a total market value of 2.499 billion dollars by 2028. Southeast Asia continues to lead the world in cryptocurrency adoption, with countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines, and Thailand ranking among the top 20 in the 2023 Global Crypto Adoption Index. Singapore remains a standout leader in the Southeast Asian crypto landscape. In 2024, it maintains its position as a hub for crypto enthusiasts, with nearly 10% of its population actively holding cryptocurrencies, highlighting its influential role in the regional market. Vietnam and Thailand have shown significant progress in embracing decentralized finance (DeFi) technology, closely following the United States in adoption rates. This rapid uptake indicates a growing interest in innovative financial solutions within these countries.

Several factors are driving the expansion of the cryptocurrency market in Southeast Asia. Many countries in the region have a significant percentage of unbanked individuals and low levels of financial inclusion, making cryptocurrencies an attractive alternative. Nations like Singapore and Hong Kong have implemented advantageous policies that encourage the growth of the cryptocurrency sector. Additionally, numerous emerging technology funds across the continent are actively supporting and funding various cryptocurrency startups. The region boasts high internet access and smartphone penetration rates, facilitating the use of digital currencies. There is also a general skepticism towards traditional financial systems and fiat money, leading to a greater openness to adopting cryptocurrencies.

In support of this burgeoning ecosystem, the Central Bank of Singapore pledged $112 million last year to assist regional fintech initiatives utilizing cutting-edge Web3 technology. Additionally, through Singapore’s Project Guardian effort, regulators from both countries collaborated to create additional crypto testing activities.

Web3 Startups, Consumer-Facing Services, Decentralized finance (DeFi) platforms and Blockchain games (GameFi)

While a large portion of the deep, basic research and infrastructure development in the blockchain space still occurs in the United States, Southeast Asia is excellent for web3 firms offering consumer-facing services. The demographics of Southeast Asia are very favorable for web3. The populace is young, has an innate understanding of technology, and is more open to trying new things. People are highly motivated to join by the financial side of cryptocurrency because it is primarily a market for developing economies.

Decentralized finance (DeFi) platforms encompass a collection of financial services and products developed on decentralized blockchain networks without the use of intermediaries like banks or other financial organizations. With DeFi, anyone with an internet connection can access a more transparent and open financial system. Examples of DeFi services and products include decentralized exchanges, asset management, insurance, lending and borrowing platforms, and other financial services that can be accessed and managed via decentralized applications on a blockchain network. In 2024, the DeFi market is expected to generate a billion dollars in revenue, with revenue predicted to increase at a 10.60% annual rate (CAGR 2024–2028).

The DeFi market is experiencing rapid innovation and growth. One trend gaining traction is decentralized exchanges (DEXs), which allow users to trade cryptocurrencies without a central authority. Additionally, the integration of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in DeFi is becoming more common, opening up new avenues for asset collateralization. The need for more inclusive, transparent, and accessible financial services than traditional finance is a major factor propelling the DeFi industry’s expansion. The DeFi market is expected to continue expanding, driven by the creation of new use cases and applications, growing acceptance of cryptocurrencies by mainstream investors, and the introduction of new DeFi platforms and protocols.

A new area of bitcoin and blockchain technology that combines gaming is called “GameFi,” or blockchain gaming. Through the use of NFTs, GameFi seeks to disrupt established gaming business models by granting players genuine ownership of in-game assets. The swift uptake of GameFi in ASEAN can be attributed to the socio-economic obstacles faced by the region’s populace, in addition to their keen interest in gaming. Numerous ASEAN nations face challenges such as a substantial portion of the populace without access to banking services, about 71% in the Philippines alone. Under these conditions, play-to-earn blockchain games offered an alluring way for consumers to augment their income, fueling GameFi’s rapid uptake.

Axie Infinity, a play-to-earn (P2E) game created by the Vietnamese startup Sky Mavis, is one of the most well-known use cases for GameFi. This game significantly impacted ASEAN society, particularly in the Philippines during its 2020–2021 peak. Even those with no prior gaming or cryptocurrency skills could earn cash through Axie Infinity. Players from across Southeast Asia could earn rewards and points in the game and exchange them for fiat money to meet basic necessities. As Axie Infinity’s popularity grew, the cost of in-game avatars, or Axies, skyrocketed, making it difficult for some to afford playing. However, P2E revenue was sufficient to sustain many people in ASEAN, acting as a helpful addition to their total income. Gaming guilds such as Yield Guild Games (YGG) stepped in to ensure that those with limited funds could still play the game by allowing them to rent gaming equipment at a discounted rate and return a portion of their profits to the guild.

The P2E industry has grown by an astounding 188% since 2021, attracting over 61,000 monthly searches. More developments and expansion are anticipated in the GameFi space in the coming times. A notable change in Southeast Asia’s GameFi scene is the growing interest of popular Web2 gaming businesses in Web3 and blockchain-based game creation. For example, Ampverse, a gaming and esports firm based in Thailand, recently created Ampverse Web3, a business division dedicated to the metaverse. With a significant presence in the local esports scene, Ampverse aims to develop a strong Web3 community by educating players about NFTs, P2E, and other GameFi-related topics.

Challenges and Opportunities

Asia is home to several of the world’s most important financial hubs, including China and India, as well as major economies like Singapore, Hong Kong, United Arab Emirates, and Japan. These distinct legal jurisdictions each have their own cryptocurrency laws. For example, trading and ownership of digital assets are permitted in Singapore, but retail cryptocurrency ads are not. Hong Kong has welcomed bitcoin businesses to maintain its status as a significant global financial center, while Dubai has been aggressively pursuing the adoption of digital assets. Japan has gradually relaxed token listing regulations and is becoming more accepting of cryptocurrencies. Conversely, China outlawed the mining and trading of cryptocurrencies in 2021, and while the government is striving to develop comprehensive crypto legislation, India has implemented strict crypto regulations.

Approximately 500 million individuals in Southeast Asia are anticipated to reach working age by 2030. The ten nations that make up the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)—Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam—already have economies that rank fifth in the world when taken as a whole. These economies are expected to grow at a rate of more than five percent annually over the next decade, which is significantly faster than the global average. A Google study predicts that 3.8 million new users will join the internet each month in Southeast Asia due to these favorable demographics. Based on approximately 50 billion dollars in investment, the internet economy in the region is expected to surpass 200 billion dollars in value by 2025.

While cryptocurrencies have made remarkable strides and holds a lot of promise in Southeast Asia, there are still certain obstacles to consider. Among them are cybersecurity and fraud. As cryptocurrency gains popularity, it attracts the interest of hackers, con artists, and other criminals. The region has seen multiple instances of ransomware attacks, phishing scams, hacking, and cryptocurrency theft. Users need to be more vigilant and cautious about their online security and privacy. Additionally, uncertainty surrounding regulations and compliance poses challenges. While some Southeast Asian nations have adopted a pro-crypto stance, others remain circumspect or antagonistic. The regulations and regulatory frameworks in the region are not uniformly clear or consistent, making it difficult for businesses and consumers of cryptocurrency to understand various requirements across different jurisdictions. Further, there is still a lot of misinformation, misconceptions, and mistrust surrounding cryptocurrency. Many people do not know how to use cryptocurrency properly or safely, or they do not understand its advantages and risks.

Despite these challenges, there are several benefits to cryptocurrency adoption. Protection against inflation is one of them. Many currencies lose value due to inflation, but many people believe that cryptocurrencies provide a buffer against this. For instance, the total quantity of Bitcoin is capped at 21 million coins. As the money supply expands faster than the amount of Bitcoin available, its price is expected to rise. This supply limitation mechanism also serves as a buffer against inflation. Another benefit is the speed of transactions. In the United States, for example, moving assets or funds between accounts or sending money to loved ones can take time but, cryptocurrency transactions can be completed in seconds. Moreover, cryptocurrency transactions can be economical, with negligible or even zero transaction costs for international money transfers, eliminating the need for third parties like VISA to validate transactions.

Cryptocurrencies represent a new decentralized money paradigm, helping to release money from governmental control and combat currency monopolies. This decentralization means no government agency can determine the value of a coin or its flow, making cryptocurrencies safe and secure. Additionally, cryptocurrency investments offer variety and can help diversify portfolios. Cryptocurrencies have shown significant growth over the last decade, and their market pricing activity appears unattached to conventional markets such as equities or bonds. This can result in more consistent returns when combined with assets that have lower price correlation. Cryptocurrencies are also accessible, requiring only an internet-connected computer or smartphone to open a bitcoin wallet, without the need for identity verification, credit checks, or background checks. This ease of use facilitates online transactions and money transfers.

End Note

Southeast Asian nations are making significant strides in adopting blockchain, AI, and cryptocurrency technology, quickly positioning the region as a hub for these advancements. According to Chainalysis’s 2023 global crypto adoption index, countries like Vietnam, the Philippines, and Thailand are poised for a transformative shift in the cryptocurrency industry. Thailand leads the region in applying blockchain technology across various sectors, while Singapore, known for its Web3 leadership, proactively supports financial solutions. In 2023, Singapore’s central bank allocated $112 million to support regional fintech projects leveraging advanced Web3 technologies. Prominent cryptocurrency platforms such as Coinbase, Blockchain.com, Circle, and Crypto.com have applied for licenses to operate in Singapore. As we embrace the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the ASEAN economies are brimming with potential. To fully capitalize on these opportunities, businesses must adopt digital technologies and become more agile, making digital transformation essential to harness the region’s economic power. Preparing for Industry 5.0, ASEAN is poised for a bright future where embracing digital changes will be key to success.